Yes, it seems to be an issue with the installer not being able to get files from launchermeta.mojang.com.
In "C:\Program Files (x86)\Minecraft Launcher\" there should be three folders "game", "runtime" and "tools". In those, there should be a bunch of files on a correct install. In the corrupt install, only the folder "game" exists and there are no files in it.
Beginning of a Fix
I did come a bit further tho. If you copy the folder "game", "runtime" and "tools" from a working copy of the game you do not get the error messages but instead you come to the login page of the launcher but when you try to log in it outputs that you're not connected to the internet.
Conclusion
As others have said it is probably to do with Mojang's servers, at first it can't get the files necessary for the launcher and if it gets them from another source it can't connect to the auth servers. I have tried with several different DNS servers, "8.8.8.8", "208.67.222.222", "1.1.1.1", "8.26.56.26", all of them produced the same results.
Hugo Arnlund
Problem
Yes, it seems to be an issue with the installer not being able to get files from launchermeta.mojang.com.
In "C:\Program Files (x86)\Minecraft Launcher\" there should be three folders "game", "runtime" and "tools". In those, there should be a bunch of files on a correct install. In the corrupt install, only the folder "game" exists and there are no files in it.
Beginning of a Fix
I did come a bit further tho. If you copy the folder "game", "runtime" and "tools" from a working copy of the game you do not get the error messages but instead you come to the login page of the launcher but when you try to log in it outputs that you're not connected to the internet.
Conclusion
As others have said it is probably to do with Mojang's servers, at first it can't get the files necessary for the launcher and if it gets them from another source it can't connect to the auth servers. I have tried with several different DNS servers, "8.8.8.8", "208.67.222.222", "1.1.1.1", "8.26.56.26", all of them produced the same results.